| Through countless ages, humanity has bemoaned | | | | Second, Jesus made statements which seem to |
| war for the most obvious of reasons. Despite the | | | | support the idea of the use of violent force in |
| possibility that some wrong things may be put | | | | certain situations. He told the disciples to take a |
| right through violence (however one might define | | | | sword with them (Luke 22:35-36): |
| violence), there is the inevitable problem of the | | | | "And he said unto them, When I sent you without |
| likelihood of great suffering being caused in the | | | | purse, and scrip, and shoes, lacked ye any thing? |
| process. | | | | And they said, Nothing. Then said he unto them, |
| Much of this suffering is needless - even | | | | But now, he that hath a purse, let him take it, and |
| accidental. Worse yet, the burden of this suffering | | | | likewise his scrip: and he that hath no sword, let |
| frequently falls upon those least responsible for | | | | him sell his garment, and buy one." 8 |
| the wrong which precipitated the violent response. | | | | Presumably, Jesus thought that there would be a |
| Sometimes, it seems that more evil may be done | | | | need for the sword. Pacifists try to assert that |
| by violent attempts to restrain evil than by | | | | the sword actually refers something else and that |
| nonviolent attempts (or even by simply allowing | | | | the disciples misunderstood His meaning. But again, |
| the original evil to prevail). How should a Christian | | | | there is no compelling reason to suspect that than |
| respond to such situations? | | | | there is to suspect that Jesus means something |
| Building on Augustine's foundation (in The City of | | | | else when He refers to the purse or shoes or |
| God), Thomas Aquinas addressed the question in | | | | scrip. The plain sense of Scripture indicates that |
| his famous work, Summa Theologica. As he does | | | | Jesus is telling them to buy a sword and take it |
| elsewhere in this work, Aquinas begins by posing | | | | with them. |
| a question and listing possible objections to his | | | | Not long before his crucifixion, Jesus appeared |
| answer. Then he attempts to show why those | | | | before Pontius Pilate and told him that (John |
| objections are not valid and why his perspective is | | | | 18:36): |
| to be accepted. The question he poses is this: | | | | "My kingdom is not of this world: if my kingdom |
| "Whether it is always sinful to wage war?" 1 His | | | | were of this world, then would my servants fight, |
| answer is that it is not always sinful. | | | | that I should not be delivered to the Jews: but |
| Aquinas lists several possible objections to his | | | | now is my kingdom not from hence." 9 |
| view. First, he cites Jesus' admonition to Peter | | | | This implies that it is entirely appropriate for the |
| that "all they that take the sword shall perish with | | | | servants of an earthly kingdom to fight on behalf |
| the sword" (Matthew 26:52b). Second, he notes | | | | of that kingdom, for instance, to protect or |
| the instruction of Jesus, "But I say unto you not | | | | rescue their sovereign. Participation in military |
| to resist evil" (Matthew 5:39a) and Paul's | | | | action would be expected from subjects of |
| instruction to the Romans, "Not revenging | | | | earthly kingdoms. |
| yourselves, my dearly beloved, but give place | | | | We have seen that Jesus was to some |
| unto wrath" (Romans 12:19). He asserts other | | | | considerable extent pacifistic in his life and ministry. |
| possible objections that war is always sinful | | | | But we have also discovered that there are at |
| because it is contrary to peace (which is | | | | least some passages in the gospels which suggest |
| supposed to be a virtue) and because the | | | | that Christ was not always so universally opposed |
| practice of warlike exercises (which may end in | | | | to violence. Let us now address the question of |
| slaying or plundering) is sinful. | | | | whether Jesus' life is to be considered as |
| Thomas does answer the objections that he | | | | paradigmatic for us as Christians. |
| previously posed. We shall now examine his | | | | Paul says in 1 Corinthians 11:1, "Be ye followers of |
| treatment as an introduction to a slightly different | | | | me, even as I also am of Christ." 10 If following |
| perspective on just war theory. He deals with the | | | | Christ means imitating His example, then we must |
| first objection by saying that Jesus meant only | | | | admit that Jesus' example is (at least in some |
| that Peter was not to "take the sword" without | | | | way) paradigmatic for the Christian. This is a point |
| "command or permission of superior or lawful | | | | upon which the just-war theorist and the pacifist |
| authority." 2 On this point, some pacifists (for | | | | should be able to agree. His example should be |
| instance, those who believe that the use of arms | | | | applied to the Christian life. Yet I would suggest |
| for the purpose of law enforcement is allowable) | | | | that there are limits to how closely His example |
| might agree with him. But Aquinas' argument, as it | | | | may be applied to us. |
| is, seems a bit weak. Jesus does not make | | | | Some of those limits are obvious. For instance, |
| mention in this passage of any other civil | | | | Jesus lived only in Judea and countries near there. |
| authority. | | | | It does not follow that we as Christians are |
| However, a look at the context of Jesus' | | | | required to live only in those countries. He was |
| statement reveals that whether or not one | | | | baptized in the Jordan River but surely we need |
| "perishes" is not the real issue. Jesus makes it | | | | not baptized in only that river; many other such |
| clear that the real reason that Peter is not to | | | | examples of instances in which His life is not |
| take the sword is that the arrest is part of God's | | | | paradigmatic could be given. Jesus was not a |
| plan for his life and ministry as indicated in | | | | soldier (nor His disciples) and He does not discuss |
| prophecy (Matthew 26:54 - "But how then shall | | | | participation in warfare. So on the specific question |
| the scriptures be fulfilled, that thus it must be?") It | | | | of participation in war, we have really no paradigm |
| is for this reason that Peter should not resist - | | | | offered to us. Thus, we can see that there are at |
| with or without recourse to the sword. | | | | least some ways in which the applicability of the |
| Similarly, Aquinas replies to the second objection | | | | Jesus paradigm is very limited. How then can we |
| by noting that these scriptures speak of private | | | | best define the extent of paradigmaticity |
| individuals acting to avenge wrongs (not the | | | | applicable to the modern Christian - who does not |
| prosecution of war). This point is questionable, too. | | | | live in first-century Judea, is not a Jewish |
| Yet should be admitted that Romans 12:19 | | | | carpenter, does not worship in the temple at |
| (quoted above) must be read in context with | | | | Jerusalem, etc? An important part of the answer |
| Romans 13, verses 1 through 4: | | | | is that we must look for scriptural testimony |
| "Let every soul be subject unto the higher | | | | outside of the gospels for additional guidance. |
| powers. For there is no power but of God: the | | | | The Broader Witness of Scripture |
| powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever | | | | One of the more troubling characteristics of |
| therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the | | | | pacifism is the inclination to be dismissive |
| ordinance of God: and they that resist shall | | | | concerning the witness of Scripture outside the |
| receive to themselves damnation. For rulers are | | | | gospels. Of course, this is understandable because |
| not a terror to good works, but to the evil. Wilt | | | | a great deal of the testimony in the Old |
| thou then not be afraid of the power? do that | | | | Testament and the New Testament epistles is |
| which is good, and thou shalt have praise of the | | | | difficult to reconcile with an extremely pacifistic |
| same: For he is the minister of God to thee for | | | | view of Jesus. The many examples of God |
| good. But if thou do that which is evil, be afraid; | | | | sending his people into wars do not fit well with |
| for he beareth not the sword in vain: for he is the | | | | the idea of a pacifistic God. Nonetheless, the Old |
| minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath | | | | Testament is "the scripture" that Jesus quoted |
| upon him that doeth evil." 3 | | | | (and thus, implicitly endorsed). |
| Considered together, we may infer from these | | | | Some suggest the accounts of the Old |
| verses that we are not to take the law into our | | | | Testament wars are just historically inaccurate |
| own hands but that we may rely on the "powers | | | | writings (from perhaps late in the temple period) |
| that be" (civil authorities) to right wrongs | | | | written for political/cultural purposes. Others say |
| perpetrated against us. Indeed, God has ordained | | | | that the writings are authentic but that Jesus so |
| them to do so. | | | | transformed our situation that these writings are |
| The objection that war is contrary to peace is | | | | not applicable (or perhaps, are not applicable in a |
| quite true, of course. Yet peace alone is not | | | | significant way). Yet the most influential Christian |
| necessarily the highest good. For example, God | | | | commentator of all time on the Old Testament |
| apparently views holiness as a higher good than | | | | scripture (the apostle Paul) says: |
| peace. For this reason, God punished the nations | | | | "All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is |
| by the instrument of war many times in history, | | | | profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, |
| as we noted earlier. | | | | for instruction in righteousness: That the man of |
| Finally, Aquinas addresses the objection that | | | | God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all |
| "warlike exercises" are evil by correctly noting | | | | good works." 11 |
| that they need not be (for instance, if such | | | | If Paul is to be trusted, then it is of little |
| exercises are executed so as to not take | | | | importance when or even why the Old |
| "innocent' life or plunder). Therefore, the execution | | | | Testament writers (whoever they were) wrote |
| of a just war is possible in the mind of Aquinas | | | | what they did. We are left with Paul's testimony |
| (and in my own perspective). | | | | that scripture (the Old Testament, that is) is |
| Thomas asserts that the waging of war may be | | | | profitable for doctrine, instruction, etc. to an |
| just when three requirements are met: | | | | extent that "the man of God may be perfect, |
| 1) First, the authority of the sovereign (rather | | | | thoroughly furnished unto all good works." Paul |
| than that of any private individual) is necessary to | | | | seems to saying that we would know God |
| call a people to war. | | | | sufficiently from the Old Testament Scripture |
| 2) Second, a "just cause" is required. That is, the | | | | alone to be "perfect" (that is, even if the gospels |
| country being attacked is to be justly punished or | | | | did not exist). |
| some wrong is be made right (for instance, an | | | | At the very least, this implies that the testimony |
| unjustly seized property is to be restored). | | | | of the Old Testament should not be contradictory |
| 3) Third, it must be waged only with the intention | | | | to the gospels (properly understood). Much of the |
| of doing good and avoiding evil. | | | | gospel writings assume that the reader has some |
| Aquinas quotes scripture (Romans 13:4) as the | | | | knowledge of the Old Testament. (The gospel |
| basis of his first requirement: | | | | writers do not take time to explain the Passover |
| "For he is the minister of God to thee for good. | | | | or who Solomon was, for instance.) It is not |
| But if thou do that which is evil, be afraid; for he | | | | enough to say that Jesus changed things. It is |
| beareth not the sword in vain: for he is the | | | | necessary to explain how He changed things. For |
| minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath | | | | instance, one might say that an "eye for an eye" |
| upon him that doeth evil." 4 | | | | was changed to "turn the other cheek." But it is a |
| In doing so, he extends the ordination of the | | | | different thing entirely to say that participation in |
| "powers that be" to include warfare in addition to | | | | warfare was changed to "turn the other cheek." |
| law enforcement activities. Is he justified in doing | | | | The epistles also shed light on the life and ministry |
| so? It would seem to me that he is justified in | | | | of Jesus with respect discerning the limits of His |
| doing so for several reasons. | | | | paradigmicity for us and they help to clarify what |
| First, the authorities are responsible to God to | | | | He really meant in his teachings. For instance, |
| promote (as much as they are able) the common | | | | Romans 13:4 (quoted above) shows that the |
| good of those whom they govern. This would | | | | pacifism of Jesus may not be extended to the |
| seem to allow inclusion of the responsibility to at | | | | prohibition of law enforcement activities. The civil |
| least protect the helpless and innocent from | | | | authority is said to be "the minister of God, a |
| unjust attack whether from forces internal or | | | | revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth |
| external to the country. | | | | evil" and a "not a terror to good works, but to |
| Secondly, there is no apparent limitation of those | | | | the evil." Note that there is no restriction of the |
| powers to "law enforcement" in the text itself. | | | | terror within the boundaries of the country - only |
| Also, there are many examples in the Old | | | | the terror is restricted to evildoers. |
| Testament of God using military campaigns to | | | | The Principle of Relative Obligation |
| justly punish nations for their sin. (Apparently, the | | | | If then the Old Testament examples of God |
| goal of such campaigns was something beyond | | | | executing justice through warfare can not be |
| the mere establishment of Israel's position in | | | | shown to be canceled by Jesus' paradigm, it |
| Canaan. See, for instance, Isaiah 13: 17-19 and | | | | becomes clear that the obligation recognized in |
| Jeremiah 46:1-10). | | | | the Scripture (that civil authorities are charged |
| The idea that a just war must have a "just | | | | with the protecting the common good at least of |
| cause" seems rather a common-sense sort of | | | | their constituents) must be affirmed as consistent |
| requirement. It would be difficult to imagine that | | | | with that paradigm (properly understood). But |
| any activity which risked injury or death of its | | | | another question quickly arises - How is that |
| participants could be justified that did not include a | | | | obligation to be balanced with the conflicting |
| just cause for that activity. | | | | interests of our enemies (whom Jesus tells us to |
| Likewise, the requirement to prosecute war only | | | | love)? |
| with intent to do good and avoid evil - even | | | | Jesus himself gives us an important key to |
| though it may be good for our enemies - would | | | | unlocking this mystery in Matthew 15, verses 22 |
| seem to be mandated by Scripture. (See, for | | | | through 27 12: |
| instance, Luke 6:35 : "But love ye your enemies, | | | | ". . . a woman of Canaan came out of the same |
| and do good, and lend, hoping for nothing again; | | | | coasts, and cried unto him, saying, Have mercy |
| and your reward shall be great, and ye shall be | | | | on me, O Lord, thou son of David; my daughter |
| the children of the Highest: for he is kind unto the | | | | is grievously vexed with a devil. But he answered |
| unthankful and to the evil.") | | | | her not a word. And his disciples came and |
| The Incarnation of Jesus | | | | besought him, saying, Send her away; for she |
| Many opponents of just war theory tend to base | | | | crieth after us. But he answered and said, I am |
| their pacifism largely on the concept that Jesus | | | | not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of |
| was a pacifist - and that his life is paradigmatic for | | | | Israel. Then came she and worshipped him, |
| us as Christians. If these two premises are true, it | | | | saying, Lord, help me. But he answered and said, |
| would be quite reasonable to conclude that all | | | | It is not meet to take the children's bread, and to |
| Christians should be pacifists. But serious questions | | | | cast it to dogs. And she said, Truth, Lord yet the |
| arise concerning both of these ideas. | | | | dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their |
| Was Jesus, indeed, a pacifist? If so, which type of | | | | masters' table." 13 |
| pacifism did He exemplify and teach? (There are | | | | Though this text does not indicate that only those |
| many different types.) It is quite true that Jesus | | | | of the Jewish nation could receive the mercy of |
| made many statements supporting (at least, in | | | | God, it strongly suggests that Jesus is assigning a |
| some sense) a pacifistic approach to life. It would | | | | priority to the Jews because they are His children |
| only be reasonable to admit that when an | | | | (in a unique way) due to their covenant relation |
| individual is attacked by an aggressor that Jesus | | | | with their King. Since those citizens of a nation are |
| taught that the individual should not resist. | | | | also in a covenant relationship of sorts (social |
| Certainly, He most strikingly exemplified that | | | | contract), one might suggest that the interests of |
| approach in his suffering and death on the cross. | | | | that nation should be considered above (but not |
| His teaching in the "Sermon on the Mount" also | | | | to the exclusion of) the interests of those outside |
| reflected such a worldview, as in Matthew 5, | | | | that nation. This idea is also supported by |
| verses 38 and 39: | | | | Galatians 6, verse 10: "As we have therefore |
| "Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for | | | | opportunity, let us do good unto all men, especially |
| an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: But I say unto | | | | unto them who are of the household of faith." 14 |
| you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall | | | | So then the concern of the state (like that of the |
| smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the | | | | Father) is to care for its "children" first - but not |
| other also." 5 | | | | to forget to do good to others as well. The killing |
| But how closely does the pacifism of Jesus - as | | | | of foreign noncombatants is, of course, to be |
| revealed in His incarnation - match the pacifism of | | | | avoided whenever possible - but not if avoiding it |
| those who oppose any Christian's participation in | | | | will result in similar casualties among the citizenry. |
| any (earthly) warfare? | | | | Conclusions |
| First, it should be noted that Christ sometimes | | | | Though Thomas Aquinas' version of the just war |
| modeled for us certain behaviors which are quite | | | | has its problems, I think I have demonstrated |
| inconsistent with such a totally nonviolent | | | | that sufficient arguments can be offered to |
| perspective. Consider, for instance, Jesus' cleansing | | | | support the use of violence certainly in law |
| of the temple (Mark 11:15-17 6): | | | | enforcement and arguably in prosecution of a just |
| "And they come to Jerusalem: and Jesus went | | | | war - even in modern times. Further, the gospel |
| into the temple, and began to cast out them that | | | | accounts of the life and ministry of the incarnate |
| sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the | | | | Christ may be interpreted in such a way as to |
| tables of the moneychangers, and the seats of | | | | allow for the use of violence and participation in |
| them that sold doves; And would not suffer that | | | | earthly warfare. Indeed, some of Jesus' |
| any man should carry any vessel through the | | | | statements tend indicate that violence is the |
| temple. And he taught, saying unto them, Is it not | | | | appropriate response in certain situations. |
| written, My house shall be called of all nations the | | | | The broader witness of scripture is replete with |
| house of prayer? but ye have made it a den of | | | | references to God as initiator, "warmonger," and |
| thieves." 7 | | | | even as the main participant in war. New |
| The word ekballein, normally translated "cast out" | | | | Testament epistles contain material which assert |
| or "throw out," suggests that Jesus used violence | | | | that civil authorities may use violence and that |
| against the moneychangers. However, the pacifist | | | | targets of that force are not necessarily limited |
| interpretation translates ekballein as "send away." | | | | to those within the nation's boundaries. Further, in |
| If Jesus merely "sent away" the moneychangers, | | | | the regrettable situation the enemy presents a |
| then violence was not necessarily involved. On the | | | | realistic threat to the citizenry of a country - |
| other hand, there is no compelling reason to | | | | within the boundaries discussed as defining a just |
| discard the more common translation of ekballein | | | | war - such a war may be justly fought. Indeed, it |
| in favor of the more unusual rendering. In the | | | | is the solemn responsibility of the state to fight |
| absence of such a reason, the traditional rendering | | | | such a war - and it is our responsibility as its |
| ("cast out") would seem to be the better choice - | | | | citizens to support such a war. |
| indicating that Jesus physically "threw them out." | | | | |